1. Prehistoric & Ancient Art

1. Lascaux Cave Paintings (c. 15,000 BCE)

    •             These cave paintings in France depict animals and hunting scenes.

   •             Intent: Likely served as part of hunting rituals or early storytelling. Some theorize they had spiritual significance, reflecting early human cognition and survival needs.

2. Venus of Willendorf (c. 28,000 BCE)

         •             A small limestone figurine of a woman with exaggerated features.

         •             Intent: Thought to be a fertility symbol, representing abundance, motherhood, or a religious idol. Its meaning depends on the society that created it.

3. Egyptian Funerary Art (Tomb of Nebamun) (c. 1350 BCE)

•             Frescoes depicting a nobleman enjoying an eternal afterlife.

•             Intent: These paintings were meant to ensure a successful afterlife, reflecting Egyptian beliefs that art had power beyond aesthetics.

4. Terracotta Army (c. 210 BCE) 

         •             Thousands of life-sized clay soldiers buried with China’s first emperor, Qin Shi Huang.

         •             Intent: To provide protection in the afterlife. The individualized faces suggest the importance of representation, hierarchy, and power.

2. Classical Antiquity

5. The Parthenon (and its sculptures) (447–432 BCE)

     •             A temple dedicated to Athena in Athens

     •             Intent: Demonstrates Greek democracy, civic pride, and devotion to the gods. Understanding its purpose explains its grandeur.

6. Laocoön and His Sons (c. 40–30 BCE)

     •             A dramatic Hellenistic sculpture of a Trojan priest being attacked by sea serpents.

     •             Intent: A political metaphor about resisting fate. It was rediscovered in the Renaissance and influenced Michelangelo.

7. Pantheon, Rome (c. 113–125 CE)

•             A massive domed temple originally dedicated to Roman gods.

   •             Intent: Built to show Rome’s imperial power and religious devotion. Its later conversion into a church altered its meaning.

3. Medieval & Byzantine Art

8. The Book of Kells (c. 800 CE)

                •             An illuminated manuscript created by Irish monks.

                •             Intent: Designed for religious devotion and to glorify Christianity. Its intricate detail reflects faith, rather than just decoration.

9. Hagia Sophia’s Mosaics (6th–14th century)

                •             Byzantine mosaics that were later covered when the church became a mosque. 
• Intent: Originally a Christian space, later an Islamic one. The shifting religious context changes how we interpret its art.

10. Giotto’s Lamentation (c. 1305)

•             Depicts mourners grieving Christ.

               •             Intent: Giotto revolutionized religious painting by humanizing biblical figures, making faith more personal.

11. Dante Alighieri- The Divine Comedy (1320)

• A journey through Hell, Purgatory and Heaven.
• Intent: More than a religious vision, it is a political allegory, with real historical figures placed in Dante’s imagined afterlife. Knowing Dante’s exile and political struggles is key to understanding the work.

4. Renaissance (14th–17th Century)

12. Leonardo da Vinci – The Last Supper (1495–98)

•             A fresco showing Christ announcing his betrayal.

      •             Intent: The composition draws attention to Christ, emphasizing both divine authority and human drama.

13. Michelangelo – Sistine Chapel Ceiling (1508–1512)

    •             Biblical scenes painted on the Vatican’s ceiling.

      •             Intent: Michelangelo wanted to convey the majesty of God and human potential. His personal struggles are evident in his letters.

14. Albrecht Dürer – Melencolia I (1514)

•             A complex engraving of a brooding angel.

     •             Intent: Thought to be an intellectual self-portrait, reflecting Dürer’s anxieties about artistic genius.

15. Hieronymus Bosch – The Garden of Earthly Delights (c. 1490–1510)

                •             A surreal triptych.

                •             Intent: A moral allegory warning against sin, but its bizarre imagery makes interpretation difficult without considering Bosch’s worldview.

      

16. Raphael – School of Athens (1511)

                •             A fresco of philosophers in the Vatican.

                •             Intent: Celebrates classical wisdom and philosophy, but also highlights Raphael’s personal ambition by including his own face.

5. Baroque & Rococo (17th–18th Century)

17. Caravaggio – The Calling of Saint Matthew (1599–1600)

•             A dramatic religious scene using stark lighting.

            •             Intent: Caravaggio’s use of realism makes faith feel immediate. His own troubled life mirrors the sinners he paints.

18. William Shakespeare- Hamlet

• A tragic play about revenge and uncertainty
• Intent: Many interpretations exist, but Shakespeare’s life and Elizabethan politics shape its meaning. Was it a commentary on power struggles? A meditation on existential doubt?

19. Rembrandt – The Night Watch (1642)

•             A portrait of a Dutch militia.

      •             Intent: Not just a group portrait, but a statement on civic pride and military readiness.

20. Diego Velázquez – Las Meninas (1656)

                •             A portrait of the Spanish royal family, with Velázquez himself included.

                •             Intent: A commentary on artistic status—is the artist equal to royalty?

21. François Boucher – The Toilette of Venus (1751)

                •             A Rococo painting of Venus bathing.

                •             Intent: Serves aristocratic taste, reinforcing frivolity and luxury.

22. Jonathon Swift A Modest Proposal (1729)

• A satirical essay suggesting that poor people should sell their children as food.
• Intent: Without knowing Swift’s satirical purpose, a reader might think he was being literal. The irony depends on intention.

23. Mary Shelley- Frankenstein (1818)

• A scientist creates life, leading to tragedy.
• Intent: Influenced by Shelley’s grief over her own lost children and debates about science and ethics. Knowing her biography changes how we interpret the monster’s suffering.

24. Ludwig van Beethoven – Symphony no. 9 (1824)

• A powerful choral symphony.
• Intent: Written while Beethoven was completely deaf. Knowing this transforms how we hear the triumphant “Ode to Joy.”

25. Richard Wagner – The Ring Cycle (1848-1874)

• A massive opera cycle.
• Intent: Wagner’s nationalist views are embedded in the work, making intent crucial for understanding its themes.

26. Claude Debussy – Clair de Lune (1890-1905)

• A dreamy piano piece.
• Intent: Inspired by French Symbolist poetry, Debussy aimed to capture emotional impressions rather than structured narratives.

6. Modernism (20th Century)

27. Igor Stravinsky – The Rite of Spring (1913)

• A ballet that caused a riot at its premiere.
• Intent: Stravinsky sought to shock audiences with primal rhythms and dissonance. Without this, its violent soundscape might be misunderstood.

28. Pablo Picasso – Guernica (1937)

•             A powerful anti-war mural.

    •             Intent: Created as a direct response to the bombing of Guernica, showing the horrors of war.

29. Marcel Duchamp – Fountain (1917)

•             A urinal signed “R. Mutt.”

   •             Intent: Questions what art is—the meaning is entirely based on Duchamp’s intention.

30. Kazimir Malevich – Black Square (1915)

•             A completely black canvas.

  •             Intent: A radical rejection of traditional art, aiming for pure feeling beyond representation.

31. George Orwell- 1984 (1949)

• A dystopian novel about surveillance and control
• Intent: A warning against totalitarianism. Without Orwell’s political background, some might read it as just fiction rather than a critique of Stalinism and authoritarianism.

32. John Cage – 4’33” (1952)

• A composition where musicians remain silent.
• Intent: Forces listeners to hear ambient noise as music. Without understanding Cage’s philosophy, the piece may seem meaningless.

7. Postmodern & Contemporary Art

33. J.R.R.Tolkein – The Lord of the Rings (1954)

• A high-fantasy epic
• Intent: Some assume it is an allegory for WWII, but Tolkien denied this. His Catholic beliefs and experiences in WWI shape its themes.

34. Alfred Hitchcock- Psycho (1960)

• A horror film about psychological trauma
• Intent: Hitchcock played with audience expectations and censorship rules, revolutionizing horror. Understanding his cinematic innovation is key.

35. Joseph Kosuth – One and Three Chairs (1965)

•             A real chair, a photograph of a chair, and a definition of a chair.

    •             Intent: Questions how meaning is created, making intent essential to interpretation.

36. Bob Dylan – The Times They Are A-Changin’ (1964)

• A protest song.
• Intent: Dylan’s response to social and political upheaval in the 1960s. Without historical context, its urgency is lost.

37. The Beatles – Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967)

• A psychedelic concept album.
• Intent: The Beatles deliberately created an alter-ego band to experiment with new musical ideas. This changes how we interpret the album.

38. Stanley Kubrick- 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968)

• A surreal sci-fi film about evolution and artificial intelligence.
• Intent: Without knowing Kubrick’s collaboration with Arthur C. Clarke and philosophical influences, the ambiguous ending remains enigmatic.

39. Pink Floyd- The Wall (1979)

• A rock opera about isolation and trauma.
• Intent: Based on Roger Water’s experiences with fame and his father’s death in WWII. Understanding this makes the narrative more impactful.

40. Francis Ford Coppola – Apocalypse Now (1979)

• A Vietnam War film based on Conrad’s Heart of Darkness.
• Intent: Coppola struggled with the chaos of war filmmaking, mirroring the madness of the story itself. The film’s troubled production adds depth.

41. Jean- Michel Basquiat – Untitled (1981)

• A raw, graffiti-inspired painting featuring a skeletal figure with bold colours and chaotic lines.
• Intent: Basquiat sought to highlight issues of race, power, and identity using his art to reclaim Black history and critique societal inequalities.

42. Spike Lee – Do the Right Thing (1989)

• A film depicting racial tensions in a Brooklyn neigbourhood on a hot summer day.
• Intent: Lee wanted to provoke discussion about systemic racism, police brutality, and social responsibility, ensuring that audiences confront uncomfortable truths about race relations in America.

43. Steven Spielberg – Schindler’s List (1993)

• A Holocaust film about a businessman saving Jewish lives.
• Intent: Spielberg, a Jewish filmmaker, made the film as an act of remembrance. Knowing this shapes our emotional engagement.

44. Ai Weiwei – Dropping a Han Dynasty Urn (1995)

                •             The artist smashes a valuable artifact.

                •             Intent: Challenges the value society assigns to history and culture.

45. David Lynch- Muholland Drive (2001)

• A surreal mystery film.
• Intent: Lynch refuses to explain his films, but knowing his dreamlike approach to storytelling changes how we interpret the film’s meaning.

46. Banksy – Balloon Girl (2002)

                •             A stenciled girl reaching for a heart-shaped balloon.

                •             Intent: Often linked to childhood innocence and lost hope, but its meaning is political.

47. Christopher Nolan- Inception (2010)

• A film about dreams within dreams
• Intent: Without understanding Nolan’s fascination with time, perception, and storytelling, the ambiguous ending loses depth.

48. Marina Abramović – The Artist Is Present (2010)

•             A performance where she silently stares at visitors.

     •             Intent: Explores human connection and presence. Without intent, it is just two people sitting.

49. Beyonce – Lemonade (2016)

• A visual album addressing infidelity, race, and empowerment.
• Intent: Beyonce’s personal and political messages deepen the meaning of the music. Without this, it could be misinterpreted as just a breakup album.

50. Banksy – Shredded Painting (Love is in the Bin) (2018)

                •             The artwork self-destructed at auction.

                •             Intent: Critiques the commodification of art—its destruction is part of its meaning.

From ancient caves to contemporary performance, intention shapes meaning. Without knowing the artist’s goals, many works become ambiguous, proving Intentism’s argument that an artist’s intent must be considered in interpretation.